Д-Р ИЛИЯНА БЕНИНА Д-Р НИКОЛА БЕНИН
Beyond the Shadows: The Story of Queen Tausret.
While Hatshepsut and Cleopatra usually dominate discussions of female pharaohs, another remarkable woman ruled Egypt at the end of the 19th Dynasty: Tausret.
Navigating a period of political turmoil, Tausret rose from Great Royal Wife to regent, ultimately ruling in her own right as Pharaoh of Egypt.
Edited by Richard H. Wilkinson, Tausret: Forgotten Queen and Pharaoh of Egypt gathers research from top scholars to explore her life, her tomb (KV14) in the Valley of the Kings, and her sudden disappearance from historical records.
Отвъд сенките: Историята на царица Таусрет.
Макар че в дискусиите за жени фараони обикновено доминират имената на Хатшепсут и Клеопатра, в края на XIX династия Египет е управляван от още една забележителна жена – Таусрет.
Преминавайки през период на политически сътресения, Таусрет извървява пътя от „Велика царска съпруга“ до регент, за да застане накрая начело на страната като пълноправен фараон на Египет.
Книгата „Таусрет: Забравената царица и фараон на Египет“ (под редакцията на Ричард Х. Уилкинсън) обединява проучвания на водещи учени, посветени на нейния живот, гробницата ѝ (KV14) в Долината на царете и внезапното ѝ изчезване от историческите летописи.
Table of Contents
Contributors
Chronology of the New Kingdom
Introduction
The Queen Who Would Be King
Richard H. Wilkinson, University of Arizona
1. Foremost of Women: The Female Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt
Joyce Tyldesley, Manchester University
2. Female Horus: The Life and Reign of Tausret
Gae Callender, Macquarie University
Photographs
3. Forgotten Treasures: Tausret as Seen in Her Monuments
Catharine H. Roehrig, Metropolitan Museum of Art
4. A Queen in a Valley of Kings: The Tomb of Tausret
Hartwig Altenmüller, Hamburg University
5. The “Temple of Millions of Years” of Tausret
Richard H. Wilkinson, University of Arizona
Afterword
Richard H. Wilkinson and Catharine H. Roehrig
Notes
Bibliography
Index
Chronology of the New Kingdom
This chronology is based partly on that given in Ian Shaw,
ed. The
Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2000).
Monarchs are identified by their cartouche names: first the
ruler’s birth
name and then, parenthetically, the throne name. Dates given
are
approximate in some cases, and all are subject to ongoing
study of the
chronology of New Kingdom Egypt.
Dynasty 18
Ahmose (Nebpehtyra) 1550–1525
Amenhotep I (Djeserkara) 1525–1504
Thutmose I (Aakheperkara) 1504–1492
Thutmose II (Aakheperenra) 1492–1479
Thutmose III (Menkheperra) 1479–1425
Hatshepsut (Maatkara) 1473–1458
Amenhotep II (Aakheperura) 1427–1400
Thutmose IV (Menkheperura) 1400–1390
Amenhotep III (Nebmaatra) 1390–1352
Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten (Neferkheperura Waenra) 1352–1336
Smenkhkara (Ankhkheperura) 1338–1336
Tutankhamen (Nebkheperura) 1336–1327
Aye (Kheperkheperura) 1327–1323
Horemheb (Djeserkheperura) 1323–1295
Dynasty 19
Ramesses I (Menpehtyra) 1295–1294
Sety I (Menmaatra) 1294–1279
Ramesses II (Usermaatra Setepenra) 1279–1213
Merenptah (Baenra Hotephermaat) 1213–1203
Amenmesse (Menmira) 1203–1200?
Sety II (Userkheperura Setepenra) 1200–1194
Siptah (Akhenra Setepenra) 1194–1188
Tausret (Sitra Merytamen) 1188–1186?
Dynasty 20
Sethnakht (Userkhaura Meryamen) 1186–1184?
Ramesses III (Usermaatra Meryamen) 1184–1153
Ramesses IV (Hekamaatra Setepenamen) 1153–1147
Ramesses V (Usermaatra Sekheperenra) 1147–1143
Ramesses VI (Nebmaatra Meryamen) 1143–1136
Ramesses VII (Usermaatra Setepenra Merytamen) 1136–1129
Ramesses VIII (Usermaatra Akhenamen) 1129–1126
Ramesses IX (Neferkara Setepenra) 1126–1108
Ramesses X (Khepermaatra Setepenra) 1108–1099
Ramesses XI (Menmaatra Setepenptah) 1099–1069
1
Foremost of Women: The Female Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt
JOYCE TYLDESLEY
To appreciate the life and reign of Tausret, and to set her
in her proper
social and historical context, it is necessary to understand
the unique role
allocated to the principal royal women—the queen consorts
and queen
mothers—of ancient Egypt. This chapter considers the
historical and
archaeological evidence for their lives, paying particular
attention to the
select group of women who could claim the title “female
pharaoh.”
The Women of Ancient Egypt
Abundant natural resources made Egypt a very wealthy
country. Yet
with no efficient health care and no official welfare
program, life was both
brief and insecure for many, and the family offered the only
reliable
protection against uncertainties. Marriage created an
economic unit to
support both husband and wife during their lifetime; their
children would, it
was hoped, support them in death by making the necessary
funerary
offerings. Everyone therefore expected to marry, and girls
were raised to
become good wives and mothers.1
Egyptian law treated men and women of equivalent social
status as
equals. Women could own, buy, sell, and inherit property.
They could bring
cases before the law courts and could be punished by them.
And they could
act as deputies for their husbands in business matters. This
was unusual by
the standards of the Classical world, but less so in
comparison to
neighboring Near Eastern societies.2
Women, and mothers in
particular,
were respected, but it would be naive to assume that
husbands did not
assume the right to control their households. The Old
Kingdom scribe
Ptahhotep offered his schoolboy readers some good advice in
this respect:
“Do not argue with your wife in court. Keep her from
power—restrain her.
… In this way you will make her stay in your home.”3
Married couples led very different lives, performing
complementary
but opposite roles. While the “Mistress of the House”
assumed
responsibility for domestic matters, her husband worked
outside the home.
This allocation of duties is reflected in the artistic
convention that presented
women as pale beings beside their more weather-beaten,
darker-skinned
husbands. Poorer women, and unmarried women, might also work
outside
the home, but few if any women (and, indeed, few men)
received the
education that would allow a professional career. As their
traditional duties
of child care, cooking, and laundry have had little impact
on the
archaeological record, these illiterate women tend to be
invisible to us. This
bias in evidence is made worse by a shortage of domestic
sites, as most of
Egypt’s mud-brick palaces, cities, and villages have been
lost. Only a few,
highly atypical, women have been able to leave evidence of
their lives.
Included among these are the queens who ruled Egypt as
kings.
From the very beginning of the dynastic age in approximately
3100
BCE, to its end in 30 BCE, Egypt was ruled by a king, or
pharaoh.4
Pharaoh
was the one Egyptian who could serve as a link between the
people and
their pantheon; the only living person who could make the
regular offerings
that the gods craved. In consequence, to pharaoh fell the
responsibility of
maintaining maat: the ideal state of affairs within Egypt.5
This was an
onerous and awesome burden. Pharaoh was required to
officiate in the
temples, to rule in the law courts, and to fight off any
enemies—either
foreigners or criminals—who might disrupt the status quo.
Thus, and only
thus, would maat be preserved. With maat in place, the gods
would be
happy and the land would prosper; with maat absent, chaos
would flood the
land and Egypt would fail. This overwhelming need to
preserve maat was
responsible for the innate conservatism of the ancient
Egyptians. Any
deviation from tradition—and, in particular, any threat to
the monarchy—
was seen as a potential threat to maat.
6
It was therefore vital that there was always a pharaoh on
the Egyptian
throne. The ideal pharaoh would be the son of the previous
king. He would
be youthful yet mature, healthy, brave, and wise;
essentially, he would be
the continuation of all successful pharaohs who had gone
before. However,
it was not always possible to meet this ideal. Occasionally
a pharaoh came
to the throne as an old man, or as an infant or a commoner.
Some pharaohs
were ill or infirm (although they did their best to hide
this in their official
propaganda).
7
And although the
overwhelming majority were male, a very
few were female. None of that mattered. Once pharaoh had
undergone the
correct coronation rituals he, or she, acquired a veneer of
divinity that
would allow him, or her, to function as a proper king. This
partial divinity
would remain in place until death transformed pharaoh into a
fully divine
being.
Technically, then, a woman might become pharaoh.8
But that would
happen only if there was no more suitable male candidate for
the throne
and, given that the royal harem usually produced multiple
sons, that was a
relatively rare event. Just three female pharaohs—the
12th-Dynasty
Sobekneferu, 18th-Dynasty Hatshepsut, and 19th-Dynasty
Tausret—are
universally accepted as having ruled pre-Ptolemaic Egypt in
their own right,
although various authorities have proposed several others.
These three
reigns were undertaken at very different times and in very
different
circumstances. Nevertheless, it is possible to draw some
broad parallels. All
three women were of royal birth, each either the daughter or
granddaughter
of a king, and each apparently served as queen-consort
before becoming
pharaoh. None had a living son to succeed her.
Each male pharaoh needed a wife by his side. Egypt’s
queen-consort
provided the feminine element of the semi-divine monarchy,
supporting the
king and performing female-based religious duties.9
But every pharaoh
also
had a mother who, by having given birth to a quasi-divine
being, was
herself touched with divinity. While the king and queen
created a
partnership strong enough to confound chaos, the king and
his mother
formed a second, unbreakable partnership. At the same time,
the dowagerqueen and the queen-consort were linked by their shared duty to
protect
pharaoh. Their relative importance alternated as the
dynastic age
progressed, with first the king’s wife, and then the king’s
mother, holding
the most important role in the royal family.
Egypt’s Queens
In the English language a “king” is always a male ruler,
while a
“queen” can be either the wife or widow of a king, or a
monarch ruling in
her own right. But in ancient Egypt, where royal titles
invariably stressed
relationships to the pharaoh, the queen’s title Hmt nswt,
which was used
from the 4th Dynasty onward, literally meant “king’s wife.”
So an Egyptian
queen was by definition a woman who was, or had been,
married to a king.
Women who ruled Egypt in their own right classed themselves
as female
pharaohs, or kings.
As pharaohs maintained increasingly large harems, there were
many,
many king’s wives; it is difficult to give precise numbers,
but it is likely that
the three hundred or so pharaohs generated several thousand
women
entitled to use the title queen. The most important of these
were the queenconsorts: the queens at the heart of the royal family whose sons
were
expected to inherit the throne. These women were
distinguished from lesser
queens by an increasingly elaborate series of crowns and
titles. They had a
recognized political and religious role, were represented in
official writings
and artwork, and were buried in splendid tombs. From the
Middle Kingdom
onward, they wrote their names in cartouches. Eventually
they would
become the next “King’s Mother.” They might even rule Egypt,
temporarily, on behalf of an absent husband or an infant
son.
In some periods, many queen-consorts were the full- or
half-sister of
the king. To a people unaware of hereditary diseases, these
unions brought
several practical benefits. They ensured that the queen was
well prepared
for her role and that she was loyal to her husband rather
than her birth
family. They reduced the number of potential claimants to
the throne by
restricting the number of royal grandchildren, and they
provided a link with
the gods who had enjoyed incestuous marriages. However,
brother-sister
marriages were by no means compulsory.
10
The king’s lesser wives spent much of their lives in harem
palaces—
communities built to house the king’s female dependents plus
their children
and servants. These harem queens were by no means of equal
status. Some
were the daughters of Egyptian kings, some were foreign
princesses sent by
their fathers to make diplomatic marriages, and some were
women of
relatively humble birth.
Queens of the Early Dynastic Period (Dynasties 1
and 2, c. 3000–2686 BCE)
We know little of Egypt’s first queens beyond their names,
which are
often compounded with that of the ancient creator Neith. A
far from passive
goddess, Neith was a hunter and a warrior whose prowess with
the bow was
reflected in her emblem of crossed bows or crossed arrows.11
Neithhotep
has been identified as the wife of the first pharaoh,
Narmer, and therefore as
Egypt’s first queen. She bore the titles “Consort of the Two
Ladies” and
“Foremost of Women,” and occasionally wrote her name in a
serekh (the
rectangular box representing the royal palace that was
invariably drawn
around the names of the earliest pharaohs) topped with the
crossed arrows
of Neith.12 This assumption of a pharaoh’s protocol suggests
that
Neithhotep may have ruled Egypt temporarily on behalf of her
son Aha.
This is a situation that we will encounter time and time
again: when an
infant inherits the throne, it is his mother who acts on his
behalf until he is
old enough to assume his duties. But as the queen’s
temporary “reign” falls
entirely within that of her son, it may prove impossible for
modern
historians to detect.
While the pharaohs of the 1st Dynasty were interred in the
royal
cemetery at Abydos, their consorts were buried elsewhere.
Just one consort
was accorded the honor of burial among the kings.
Meritneith, consort of
Djet, mother of Den and (probable) daughter of Djer, was
interred in Tomb
Y.
13 Meritneith occasionally uses the serekh and this,
combined with the
fact that she was probably included on a broken section of
the Palermo
Stone (a record of the kings of Dynasties 1–5), suggests
that she too ruled
on behalf of her son. We may therefore regard her splendid
tomb, set among
the tombs of her fellow rulers, as a reward for her reign.14
There were, however, some lesser queens buried beside the
1stDynasty kings. Each royal tomb was surrounded by a series of satellite
graves whose shared roof suggests that they were provided
for subjects or
relatives who were expected, maybe even forced, to die when
pharaoh
died.15 The earlier tombs had large numbers of these
subsidiary graves—
Djer had over 300—but the tradition gradually dwindled away
and is not
found in the 2nd Dynasty. The dead were buried in short
wooden coffins,
and their names and a few titles were preserved on small
stelae carved by
the royal workshop. While some of these stelae are unreadable,
it is clear
that the vast majority belonged to women, and it seems
likely that they
represent pharaoh’s closest courtiers, including his harem
wives.16
Queens of the Old Kingdom (Dynasties 3–8, c.
2686–2125 BCE)
The pyramid-building pharaohs of the Old Kingdom considered
themselves to be both the living Horus and the son of the
solar god Re.
From the 4th Dynasty onward their consorts and mothers were
equated with
Hathor, a solar goddess who had a double link with the Horus
king as she
could be either the wife of the adult Horus or the
protective mother-cow
who nourished the infant Horus and, by extension, suckled
and protected all
of Egypt’s pharaohs. A series of triads recovered from the
Giza mortuary
temple of Menkaure show the king and Hathor standing with
various local
deities: Hathor invariably wears a sheath dress and a
headdress of cow
horns and a solar disk. A contemporary dyad of Menkaure and
an unnamed
woman, conventionally identified as his consort Kharmerernebty
II but
possibly his mother, Kharmerernebty I, shows the queen
looking nearly
identical to Hathor but lacking the goddess’s diagnostic
headdress.17
Goddesses had always worn distinguishing crowns. Now queens,
too,
were starting to develop their own regalia. First to appear
was the vulture
crown, a headdress that resembled a bird draped over the
wearer’s head,
with the body forming a cap, the wings hanging at the sides
of the face, and
the vulture’s head and neck rising from the forehead. This
was originally
the headdress worn by Nekhbet, vulture goddess of southern
Egypt and, in
some mythologies, mother of the king. Other goddesses
subsequently
adopted it, while Wadjet, cobra goddess of northern Egypt,
replaced the
bird’s head with a uraeus (rearing cobra). This modified
vulture headdress
would be worn by consorts from the 6th Dynasty onward,
emphasizing the
link both between the queen and motherhood (vultures and
snakes being
considered good mothers) and between the queen and the
uraeus-wearing
pharaoh. The simple vulture headdress, too, would become a
standard part
of the queen’s regalia, but during the 4th Dynasty it may
have been reserved
for the dowager-queen.
The increasing use of stone throughout the Old Kingdom
allows us to
see that queens were often depicted at a much smaller scale
than their
husbands. In Egyptian art, where size always mattered, this
was a reflection
of the consort’s (and, indeed, the wife’s) status relative
to that of the
husband who commissioned the image. The first miniature
queen is the 3rdDynasty Hetephernebty, who appears on a fragment of a smashed
stone
shrine standing beside the leg of her gigantic husband,
Djoser.
18 This
difference in size was not inevitable: the Menkaure dyad
already discussed
shows the king and queen at a similar scale. Nor need queens
always appear
with a husband: the so-called Galarza tomb at Giza has
yielded a series of
statues including a colossal Kharmerernebty II.19
Although we have most of the burial equipment of Hetepheres
(Figure
1.1, see insert), mother of the 4th-Dynasty pharaoh Khufu,
we know little of
her life.20 It is not until the early 5th Dynasty that we
find our first
politically prominent queen. Khentkawes I is the owner of an
extensive,
two-stepped pyramid-mastaba tomb at Giza21 The titles carved
on the
doorway to her mortuary temple include an ambiguous phrase
that can be
translated as either “Mother of Two Kings of Upper and Lower
Egypt,” or
“King of Upper and Lower Egypt and Mother of the King of
Upper and
Lower Egypt.” Initially Egyptologists accepted the first
interpretation,
believing that Khentkawes had given birth to two kings,
Sahure and
Neferirkare, the second and third kings of the 5th Dynasty.
However,
Miroslav Verner has recently suggested that an image carved
on
Khentkawes’ doorjamb shows her sitting on a throne, wearing
a false beard
and uraeus and carrying a scepter. This image is,
unfortunately, faint and
unclear. Khentkawes’ name is never found in a cartouche, but
if Verner is
correct, it would seem that she too served as a temporary
monarch.22
The entirely fictional Papyrus Westcar tells the story of
the triplet sons
of Re, born to the lady Redjedet.23 The babies are addressed
by the midwife
Isis: “Do not be so strong in your mother’s womb, you whose
name means
Strong” (a pun on the name Userkaf); “do not kick in your
mother’s womb,
you whose name means Kicker” (Sahure); “do not be dark in
your mother’s
womb, you whose name means Dark” (Neferirkare Kakai). This
is far from
accurate history, but it does link Redjedet (a corruption of
Khentkawes?)
with the first three kings of the 5th Dynasty: Userkaf,
Sahure, and Nyuserre.
Userkaf, founder of the 5th Dynasty, is a man of unknown but
presumably
royal origins and it seems likely that he was married to
Khentkawes I. As
Userkaf reigned for just eight years, it is possible that
his heir, Sahure,
would have needed his mother’s guidance. However, the
situation becomes
more complicated when we consider the evidence from the
Abusir pyramid
complex of Khentkawes II, consort to Neferirkare.24 Here,
included among
entirely conventional images, we see Khentkawes wearing a
uraeus and
using the same ambiguous title “Mother of Two Kings of Upper
and Lower
Egypt” or “King of Upper and Lower Egypt and Mother of the
King of
Upper and Lower Egypt.” Although Khentkawes I and II may be
the same
woman, it is generally accepted that they are separate,
identically named
queens. Khentkawes I seems to have ruled Egypt on behalf of
at least one
son. Whether Khentkawes II also ruled on behalf of a son or
was simply the
mother of two kings (Neferefre and Nyuserre) is not obvious.
Herodotus tells us that Nitocris, last queen of the 6th
Dynasty,
succeeded her murdered brother to the throne.25 Determined
to avenge him,
she built an underground banqueting chamber. Having invited
her brother’s
assassins to a feast, she opened a conduit to the river.
When all the
murderers had drowned, Nitocris committed suicide rather
than explain her
actions to her people. This dramatic, and highly
un-Egyptian, story is
unlikely to be true. Nitocris has left neither monument nor
tomb, and
although the 19th-Dynasty Turin Canon allocates the
otherwise unknown
“Neitaqerti” a reign of two years, one month, and one day,
it seems
probable that “Neitaqerti” is a misre-corded male name.
Queens of the Middle Kingdom (Dynasties 11–13,
c. 2055–1650 BCE)
While the Middle Kingdom pharaohs reestablished the
traditions of
their Old Kingdom predecessors, adopting their propaganda,
regalia, and
burial customs, their consorts, denied the prominence
accorded to the Old
Kingdom queens, had little impact on state affairs and all
but vanished from
the royal monuments. This phenomenon was not restricted to
the royal
family, and it is clear that relatively few elite women bore
priestly titles.26
Our knowledge of the Middle Kingdom queens is therefore
largely
restricted to their names, their tombs, and their surviving
grave goods.
During the 12th Dynasty we find the introduction of the
title “King’s Great
Wife,” a title that helps us to distinguish the consort from
lesser queens.27
The tradition of female reticence came to an abrupt end
during the
reign of the 12th-Dynasty pharaoh Amenemhat III. Amenemhat
was a
dynamic and prosperous monarch, yet his death heralded the
collapse of his
dynasty. Evidence from his Hawara pyramid suggests that his
failure to
produce a satisfactory male heir may have been a
contributing factor to this
collapse. Included in his burial chamber was a wooden coffin
for “the
King’s Daughter Ptahnofru.” It seems that Ptahnofru, having
died
unexpectedly, had to be temporarily interred in her father’s
tomb to allow
the builders sufficient time to complete her pyramid.28
Ptahnofru’s use of a
cartouche in her later inscriptions suggests that she had
been her father’s
intended successor. Instead, with Ptahnofru already dead,
Amenemhat IV
briefly succeeded Amenemhat III.
Amenemhat IV was in turn succeeded as pharaoh by his
half-sister and
probable consort Sobekneferu. Sobekneferu never explains her
elevation to
the throne but she does emphasize her hereditary right to
rule by
consistently associating herself with her father Amenemhat
III: she may
even have been the first to deify Amenemhat III in the
Faiyum. The fact
that later historians were happy to incorporate her in their
king lists
indicates that she was always regarded as a legitimate
pharaoh.
Three badly damaged statues of Sobekneferu have been
recovered
from the Delta site of Avaris; we may assume that these
originated in the
Faiyum where Sobekneferu ruled the whole of Egypt from the
(now lost)
city of Idj-Tawi. The most interesting of these pieces is
headless and
limbless. Carved from red quartzite, it shows the queen’s
female body
dressed in an awkward combination of queen’s and king’s
clothing: a
female shift dress with a royal kilt tied over the top.29 On
her head
Sobekneferu wears a king’s nemes head cloth; her titles are
inscribed on her
belt. An equally damaged schist statue shows her wearing a
king’s ritual
cloak.30 Without in any way denying her gender—she almost
invariably
uses feminine titles—Sobekneferu is here allowing herself to
be depicted in
the traditional regalia that will reinforce her role as
pharaoh. In other
images she is entirely female in appearance, but she assumes
a male pose to
perform the ritual of trampling Egypt’s enemies.
The Turin Canon allows Sobekneferu a reign of three years,
ten
months, and twenty-four days. Her pyramid has never been
identified.
Sobekneferu’s Names as Ruler
Horus name: Meryt-Re
Nebty name: Sat-Sekhem Nebet-Tawy
Golden Horus name: Djedet-Khaw
Prenomen/King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Ka-Sobek-Re
Nomen: Sobek-Nofru
Horus name: Beloved of Re
Nebty name: Powerful Daughter, Mistress of the Two Lands.
Golden Horus name: Rising in Stability
Prenomen/King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Sobek is the soul of
Re
Nomen: Sobekneferu [the Beauties of Sobek]
Queens of the Earlier 18th Dynasty (c. 1550–1390
BCE)
As the Theban pharaohs of the late 17th Dynasty started the
long fight
to reunite their land, their consorts were required to take
supportive action
in the absence of their husbands and sons. An increased
emphasis on, and
respect for, the individuality of each consort allowed their
deeds to be
recorded, and this allows us to recognize different
personalities in a way
that has been impossible before.31
Tetisheri, consort of Sekenenre Taa I, was a formidable
queen. She
would be remembered with such respect by her grandson
Ahmose, founder
of the 18th Dynasty, that he built an elaborate cenotaph for
her in the
Abydos cemetery. Even greater was the respect that Ahmose
felt for his
mother Ahhotep I, consort of Seqenenre Taa II and daughter
of Tetisheri.
Ahhotep had raised Ahmose and his sister-consort
Ahmose-Nefertari
following the death of his father in battle. On a stela
erected at Karnak,
Ahmose boasted that his mother performed the rites, guarded
Egypt, and
cared for Egypt’s soldiers.32 Ahhotep’s successful defense
of her land
(Thebes, rather than the whole of Egypt) explains why her
coffin included,
along with the expected jewelry, an inscribed ceremonial
axe, a gold dagger
and sheath, and three golden flies: the “medals” awarded to
successful
soldiers.33
The New Kingdom consorts maintained the high status
inherited from
their late 17th-Dynasty predecessors, adopting increasing
numbers of
secular and religious titles and an expanded range of crowns
and
headdresses that now included the double uraeus. Hathor and Isis
wore
similar crowns so that, at a time when many pharaohs were
hinting at their
own earthly divinity, their queens and their goddesses
appeared almost
interchangeable. This increase in status coincided with an
expansion in the
size of the royal harem. The New Kingdom kings—now the
richest and
most powerful rulers in the Mediterranean world—married
many, many
times. While foreign princesses traveled to Egypt to marry
pharaoh (several
princesses marrying each king), there was no reciprocal
exchange of brides.
From the late 17th Dynasty until the mid-19th we have no
evidence of any
Egyptian princess marrying anyone other than an Egyptian
king.
Ahmose-Nefertari proved a worthy successor to her mother.
Alongside
her standard royal titles “King’s Daughter,” “King’s
Sister,” and “King’s
Great Wife”—she became “Second Priest of Amun” and was
simultaneously both “Divine Adoratrice” and “God’s Wife of
Amun.” The
income generated from these lucrative positions allowed her
to make
generous offerings to the gods, and her name has been
recorded in temples
at Abydos, Thebes, and Serabit el-Khadim in Sinai. She is
also recorded, in
association with her husband, in the limestone quarries and
alabaster
quarries. When Ahmose died, Ahmose-Nefertari served as
regent for their
young son, Amenhotep I. Later, following the death of his
childless sisterwife Meritamen, she acted as Amenhotep’s consort. Dying during
the reign
of Thutmose I, she was buried in the Dra Abu el-Naga
cemetery on the
Theban west bank. But that was not the end of her story.
Amenhotep I and
Ahmose-Nefertari had become so closely linked that both were
deified as
patrons of the workmen’s village of Deir el-Medina. Here
AhmoseNefertari was worshipped as a goddess of resurrection until the end of
the
New Kingdom.
Egypt’s next pharaoh was the commoner-born Thutmose I. His
consort, Ahmose, used the title “King’s Sister” but was
apparently not a
king’s daughter. She bore her husband two daughters but no
son. Ahmose
remained in the background during her husband’s reign and
the subsequent
reign of her stepson, Thutmose II, only to be given a
prominent role in the
divine birth story of her daughter, the female pharaoh
Hatshepsut.
Following the death of Thutmose I, Hatshepsut became consort
and
“God’s Wife of Amun” to her half brother, Thutmose II. She
bore a
daughter, Neferure, but not a son, and so, when Thutmose II
died, the
throne passed to the infant Thutmose III, a son born to the
harem queen Isis.
As the new king needed an experienced queen to help him
reign,
Hatshepsut stepped forward and assumed the title “Mistress
of the Two
Lands.” Initially this was a conventional regency, although
Hatshepsut’s
commissioning of a pair of obelisks for the Karnak temple of
Amun hints at
her unusual ambition. Then, some time before her stepson’s
Regnal Year 7,
Hatshepsut was crowned pharaoh. In a throwback to Middle
Kingdom
tradition, she ruled as the dominant king alongside the now
junior
Thutmose III.34
Hatshepsut now needed to present herself as a traditional
pharaoh. We
don’t know how she dressed in real life, but her earlier
images and statuary
show her either as a conventional woman or as a woman
wearing king’s
clothing, while her later art shows her as a stereotypical
king with a male
body dressed in male clothing. Her monumental texts are less
consistent,
and she alternates between the feminine and masculine forms
of her titulary
(Figure 1.2, see insert).
Like many modern politicians, Hatshepsut neither explains
nor
apologizes for her actions. We may speculate that she acted
because Egypt
was threatened by a situation requiring a fully adult
pharaoh, but there is no
evidence of any political, military, or religious crisis at
this time. It may
simply be that she felt, as the daughter, sister, and wife of
a pharaoh, that
her contribution to maintaining the monarchy should be
recognized. There
is no indication that anyone opposed her elevation, and we
must assume
that she had the support of the elite who effectively ran
the priesthood, civil
service, and army. Nor is there any evidence that anyone—not
even
Thutmose III—ever attempted to remove her from power. Once
she had
completed the coronation rituals, she remained pharaoh until
her death. She
does, however, offer us some justification. She is entitled
to rule because
she is the true heir of Thutmose I and so, like Sobekneferu
before her, she
consistently links herself to her powerful and widely
revered father. At the
same time she is the semi-divine “Daughter of Amun.” And he,
via an
oracle, has proclaimed his daughter pharaoh. The tale of
Hatshepsut’s
divine conception and birth is told in words and pictures on
the walls of her
Theban temple.